When Were the Elements Discovered (Timeline)

Heres a helpful table chronicling the discovery of the elements. The date is listed for when the element was first isolated. In many cases, the presence of a new element was suspected years or even thousands of years before it could be purified. Click on an elements name to see its entry in the Periodic Table and get facts for the element. Ancient Times - Prior to 1 A.D. GoldSilverCopperIronLeadTinMercurySulfurCarbon Time of the Alchemists - 1 A.D. to 1735 Arsenic (Magnus ~1250)Antimony (17th century or earlier)Phosphorus (Brand 1669)Zinc (13th Century India) 1735 to 1745 Cobalt (Brandt ~1735)Platinum (Ulloa 1735) 1745 to 1755 Nickel (Cronstedt 1751)Bismuth (Geoffroy 1753) 1755 to 1765-- 1765 to 1775 Hydrogen (Cavendish 1766)Nitrogen (Rutherford 1772)Oxygen (Priestley; Scheele 1774)Chlorine (Scheele 1774)Manganese (Gahn, Scheele, Bergman 1774) 1775 to 1785 Molybdenum (Scheele 1778)Tungsten (J. and F. dElhuyar 1783)Tellurium (von Reichenstein 1782) 1785 to 1795 Uranium (Peligot 1841)Strontium (Davey 1808)Titanium (Gregor 1791)Yttrium (Gadolin 1794) 1795 to 1805 Vanadium (del Rio 1801)Chromium (Vauquelin 1797)Beryllium (Vauquelin 1798)Niobium (Hatchett 1801)Tantalum (Ekeberg 1802)Cerium (Berzelius Hisinger; Klaproth 1803)Palladium (Wollaston 1803)Rhodium (Wollaston 1803-1804)Osmium (Tennant 1803)Iridium (Tennant 1803) 1805 to 1815 Sodium (Davy 1807)Potassium (Davy 1807)Barium (Davy 1808)Calcium (Davy 1808)Magnesium (Black 1775; Davy 1808)Boron (Davy; Gay-Lussac Thenard 1808)Iodine (Courtois 1811) 1815 to 1825 Lithium (Arfvedson 1817)Cadmium (Stromeyer 1817)Selenium (Berzelius 1817)Silicon (Berzelius 1824)Zirconium (Klaproth 1789; Berzelius 1824) 1825 to 1835 Aluminum (Wohler 1827)Bromine (Balard 1826)Thorium (Berzelius 1828) 1835 to 1845 Lanthanum (Mosander 1839)Terbium (Mosander 1843)Erbium (Mosander 1842 or 1843)Ruthenium (Klaus 1844) 1845 to 1855-- 1855 to 1865 Cesium (Bunsen Kirchoff 1860)Rubidium (Bunsen Kirchoff 1861)Thallium (Crookes 1861)Indium (Riech Richter 1863) 1865 to 1875 Fluorine (Moissan 1866) 1875 to 1885 Gallium (Boisbaudran 1875)Ytterbium (Marignac 1878)Samarium (Boisbaudran 1879)Scandium (Nilson 1878)Holmium (Delafontaine 1878)Thulium (Cleve 1879) 1885 to 1895 Praseodymium (von Weisbach 1885)Neodymium (von Weisbach 1885)Gadolinium (Marignac 1880)Dysprosium (Boisbaudran 1886)Germanium (Winkler 1886)Argon (Rayleigh Ramsay 1894) 1895 to 1905 Helium (Janssen 1868; Ramsay 1895)Europium (Boisbaudran 1890; Demarcay 1901)Krypton (Ramsay Travers 1898)Neon (Ramsay Travers 1898)Xenon (Ramsay Travers 1898)Polonium (Curie 1898)Radium (P. M. Curie 1898)Actinium (Debierne 1899)Radon (Dorn 1900) 1905 to 1915 Lutetium (Urbain 1907) 1915 to 1925 Hafnium (Coster von Hevesy 1923)Protactinium (Fajans Gohring 1913; Hahn Meitner 1917) 1925 to 1935 Rhenium (Noddack, Berg, Tacke 1925) 1935 to 1945 Technetium (Perrier Segre 1937 )Francium (Perey 1939)Astatine (Corson et al 1940)Neptunium (McMillan Abelson 1940)Plutonium (Seaborg et al. 1940)Curium (Seaborg et al. 1944) 1945 to 1955 Mendelevium (Ghiorso, Harvey, Choppin, Thompson, and Seaborg 1955)Fermium (Ghiorso et al. 1952)Einsteinium (Ghiorso et al. 1952)Americium (Seaborg et al. 1944)Promethium (Marinsky et al. 1945)Berkelium (Seaborg et al. 1949)Californium (Thompson, Street, Ghioirso, and Seaborg: 1950) 1955 to 1965 Nobelium (Ghiorso, Sikkeland, Walton, and Seaborg 1958)Lawrencium (Ghiorso et al. 1961)Rutherfordium (L Berkeley Lab, USA - Dubna Lab, Russia 1964) 1965 to 1975 Dubnium (L Berkeley Lab, USA - Dubna Lab, Russia 1967)Seaborgium (L Berkeley Lab, USA - Dubna Lab, Russia 1974) 1975 to 1985 Bohrium (Dubna Russia 1975)Meitnerium (Armbruster, Munzenber et al. 1982)Hassium (Armbruster, Munzenber et al. 1984) 1985 to 1995 Darmstadtium (Hofmann, Ninov, et al. GSI-Germany 1994)Roentgenium (Hofmann, Ninov et al. GSI-Germany 1994) 1995 to 2005 Nihonium - Nh - Atomic Number 113  (Hofmann, Ninov et al. GSI-Germany 1996)Flerovium - Fl - Atomic Number 114 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research  and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 1999)Livermorium - Lv - Atomic Number 116 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2000)Oganesson - Og - Atomic Number 118 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2002)Moscovium - Mc - Atomic Number 115 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2003) 2005 to Present Tennessine - Ts - Atomic Number 117 (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Vanderbilt University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2009) Will There Be More? While the discovery of 118 elements completes the periodic table, scientists are working to synthesize new, superheavy nuclei. When one of these elements is verified, another row will be added to the periodic table.

Essay on Analysis of Edna Pontellier - 761 Words

Character Analysis of Edna Pontellier Edna Pontellier was a very respectable woman from the 1800s that was unsatisfied with her situation in life. Mrs. Pontellier was a mother of two sons and had a husband whom she adored at the beginning of their marriage, but overtime they have became distant and her sexual desires were no longer being fulfilled. She soon broke the role society had casted upon her and became rebellious by leaving her womanly duties behind. Kate Chopin reveals Edna Pontelliers character through the her actions, through dialogue, and by telling the reader the thoughts and feelings that are circulation through Mrs. Pontellier. Actions define a persons character and through Edna Pontelliers actions the reader†¦show more content†¦Isnt that enough reason? The author is insinuating that Edna no longer wants to be with her husband. Kate Chopin does this by slowly making Edna Pontellier leave the presence of her old life. This also shows that Mrs. Pontellier is becoming very independent because she is no longer living off of her husband and she is doing what she wants to do when she wants to do it. This was very uncommon for a mother of two children during the 1800s. Edna Pontelliers thoughts and feelings change throughout the book and this also helps better reveal her character. The thoughts and feelings circulating through Edna Pontellier help the reader better understand her character and how she changes throughout the book. For Example, Kate Chopin writes, â€Å"The years that are gone seem like dreams—if one might go on sleeping and dreaming—but to wake up and find—oh! well! Perhaps it is better to wake up after all, even to suffer, rather than to remain a dupe to illusions all one’s life.† CHAPTER 38. Saying that it is better to suffer rather than to go through life unconsciously is a very important theme in this novel because that is what Edna Pontelliers awakening is all about. Kate Chopin uses this quote because Edna would rather suffer with the wisdom she has gained, rather than going through life tending to her husbands and childrens every need. Edna is going against her womanly duties and is again becoming independent. This is whatShow MoreRelatedEdna Pontellier Analysis1868 Words   |  8 Pages In analyzing the character development of Edna Pontellier as a character, she becomes a radical woman of this literary age. Through her development, Mrs. Pontellier exhibits characteristics that would not be deemed as acceptable behavior from a married woman of the late 1800’s as American society is beginning to see a shift into the Industrial Revolution. Throughout Kate Chopin’s The Awakening, Edna Pontellier undergoes several episodes of bipolar behavior through her activities and her familyRead MoreEdna Pontellier Character Analysis Essay1254 Words   |  6 PagesBy:Charard Brown Edna Pontellier as a character is an Interesting topic amongst scholars who have read The Awakening by Kate Chopin. The topic of her suicide is the focal point of such discussion. Weather it was an act of heroism, or the downfall of an already pitiful woman. While it may be easy to characterize suicide as a â€Å"cowards† death its not good to be so hasty. Looking at Edna as a character one can see a woman who is clearly more progressive than the time she was in. Edna had always beenRead MoreEdna Pontellier and Elizabeth Bennet: Challenge of 19th Century Conventional Methods1344 Words   |  6 Pagesand Austen gave birth to characters such as Edna Pontellier in The Awakening, and Elizabeth Bennett, the renowned protagonist of Austen’s novella Pride and Prejudice. While noble in their respective ways one can easily mistake Edna and Elizabeth to be selfish creatures of society because of their ardent pursuit of happiness and love, and their disregard of nineteenth centur y societal constructs and family expectations. In similar aspects Edna Pontellier and Elizabeth Bennett were able to successfullyRead MoreThe Awakening By Kate Chopin1193 Words   |  5 Pageslikeliness to be able to relate to the aforementioned as well. Chopin stylistically renders the struggle of the protagonist Edna Pontellier, a strong willed woman who finds herself imprisoned to the concept of trans-temporal existence, as she seeks refuge to her true being, Edna experiments relationships with multiple men that unintentionally repress her existence. Between Leonce Pontellier, Robert Lebrun, Alcee Arobin and The Colonel effect of Edna’s life they catalyze her awakening and ultimately lead herRead MoreEssay on The Awakening1358 Words   |  6 PagesTo this present day, women throughout America would be drastically different and would withhold fewer rights if it were not for women in the nineteenth and twentieth century like the characters Madame Ratignolle, Edna Pontelli er, and Mademoiselle Reisz in the novel The Awakening, by Kate Chopin. They shaped America into a place where freedom and equality for women is possible. Although the three women were different, they all contributed to different aspects of the feminist movement. Each characterRead MoreThe Awakening By Kate Chopin1462 Words   |  6 Pagesof women in society. In the novel â€Å"The Awakening,† published in 1899, Chopin uses protagonist Edna Pontellier to confront the social conventions that women faced in the Victorian Era, and the strict rules by the Creole society that limited women to the primary role of wife and mother. Chopin uses symbolism to express these ideas, and emotions as Edna awakens to a world of new possibilities. In this analysis, we will examine two primary symbols of the story, being birds and houses that Kate Chopin masterfullyRead MoreThe Awakening: An Emergence of Womens RIghts in the Late Nineteenth Century1330 Words   |  6 PagesThe novel is set i n South Louisiana, a place where tradition and culture also play a vital role in societal expectations. The novel’s protagonist, Edna Pontellier, initially fulfills her position in society as a wife and as a mother while suppressing her urges to live a life of passion and freedom. Edna’s relationship with her husband, Là ©once Pontellier, represents her expected role in a marriage that lacks passion and excitement. Edna’s relationship with her lover, Robert Lebrun, represents her indulgenceRead MoreFeminist Literary And Cultural Theory By Donald Hall1338 Words   |  6 Pagescharacteristics and behaviors to woman. According to the text, â€Å"Literary and Cultural Theory† by Donald Hall, the purpose of feminism is â€Å"to reveal, analyze, and redress the situations in which women’s equality with men is denied† (200). For example, feminist analysis is being able to recognize the different degrees of social power that are given to and used by men and women (Halls 199). While cultural feminism is one of the many types of feminism, it is an important issue in society. It mainly focuses on theRead More Critical Analysis of The Awakening Essay970 Words   |  4 PagesCritical Analysis of The Awakening The Awakening, by Kate Chopin, is the story of a woman who is seeking freedom. Edna Pontellier feels confined in her role as mother and wife and finds freedom in her romantic interest, Robert Lebrun. Although she views Robert as her liberator, he is the ultimate cause of her demise. Edna sees Robert as an image of freedom, which brings her to rebel against her role in society. This pursuit of freedom, however, causes her death. Chopin uses manyRead More The Metaphorical Lesbian in Chopin’s The Awakening Essay604 Words   |  3 PagesThe Metaphorical Lesbian in Chopin’s The Awakening In â€Å"The Metaphorical Lesbian: Edna Pontellier in The Awakening† Elizabeth LeBlanc asserts that the character Edna Pontellier is an example of what Bonnie Zimmerman calls the â€Å"metaphorical lesbian.† It’s important to distinguish between Zimmerman’s concept of the â€Å"metaphorical lesbian† and lesbianism. The â€Å"metaphorical lesbian† does not have to act on lesbian feelings or even become conscious of herself as a lesbian. Instead, the â€Å"metaphorical

William Shakespeares Othello as a Victim Essay - 1370 Words

William Shakespeares Othello as a Victim Not All Works Cited Included In Othello Shakespeare shows that Othello is victimised in many ways, for instance; his race, his culture, his social position and naÃÆ' ¯ve. Othellos victimisation could also show Shakespeares meaning of the term tragedy. In other Shakespearean tragedies the lead character is shown as cunning, ruthless and manipulative, more similar to Iago than Othello. This could represent a change in Shakespeares opinion of a true Shakespearean tragedy. The main cause of Othellos victimisation is his race. Unlike the other characters in Othello he is a Moor, a natural figure of hatred and disgust. In the play he is very rarely†¦show more content†¦In the late sixteenth century and early seventeenth century there where many wars between Christian Venice and the Islamic Ottoman Empire, Venice, at this time a large commercial capitalist Republic was often portrayed as the glories protector of Christendom against the eastern barbarians. The reason why Othello is compared to the Turks is because even though he has gone through the progress of communication and is an official member of the Roman catholic church, as he is a Moor he would always be considered a Muslim and never be a true Christian, so would always be victimised as a inferior. Also due to Othellos original religion he is accused of witchcraft, For an abuser of the world, a practiser Of arts inhibited and out of warrant. The art of black magic was strictly forbidden in Elizabethan society and was often linked to eastern culture and religion. For Othello to be accused with witchcraft would be taken very seriously and be considered an insult by the accused. Also the lack of clear evidence would suggest that this is just because of Othellos culture and race and may not be a completely serious claim by Brabantio. In Elizabethan society social order was often strict and binding, throughout the play the role that Othello plays can be questioned. At one stage he is considered aShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeare And Domestic Violence .During High1006 Words   |  5 PagesWilliam Shakespeare and Domestic Violence During high school, students will tend to read multiple plays written by William Shakespeare in school. In fact, part of the English Language Arts (ELA) Standards set by Common Core included William Shakespeare’s plays. For ninth and tenth grade students, standard CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.9-10.9 expected them to be able to examine how an author draws on and transforms source materials in a specific work (Common Core State Standards, 2017). The examplesRead MoreThe Many Evils of Iago in Othello by Shakespeare Essay examples1265 Words   |  6 PagesThe Many Evils of Iago in Othello by Shakespeare Iago is a man of jealousy, and he is proposing revenge against Cassio and Othello. He claims both Cassio and Othello have seduced his wife, Emilia, a warm-hearted, simple woman. He proposes, as revenge of wife for wife, to put Othello into such a jealousy as judgement can cure (Jorgensen 59). We know therefore from the start why Iago hates Othello . . . (Modern 3). Iagos hatred for the Moor is deep, and there is apparently reason. 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Shakespeare places his characters on a sort of spectrum in which a character’s amount of god or evil can be represented by a shade of color: black representing pure evil, white representing absolute goodness, and a shade of greyRead MoreFrom Valiancy to Vengeance in Shakespeare ´s Othello794 Words   |  4 PagesHatred, in Shakespeare’s Othello, destroyed the lives of so many innocent people, creating an atmosphere of fear and mayhem. Jealousy turned into a deep hatred, and liberated the beast in man (Blooms major dramatists).This mayhem caused a substantial amount of destruction and led to the demise of many. Hatred in Othello starts with Brabantio, who claims Othello is a noble, respectable man. However, Brabantio hates dark skin and foreign roots, two attributes Othello possesses. Brabantio’s hatredRead MoreThe Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice Essay1142 Words   |  5 PagesA talented poet and playwright writer, William Shakespeare came during the golden age of England. His writings are the greatest in the English language. No one really know Shakespeare real birthday. The closet date the scholars can come up is on his baptism on April 24th, 1564. It has been over 400 years since his death; Shakespeare’s writing is not just limited to English scholars, but also appears on modern historical events and newspaper as well. Playwright and poetry are an art that appealsRead MoreOthello: Shakespeare vs. Parker Essay615 Words   |  3 PagesOthello: Shakespeare vs. Parker To create an adaptation of a literary work is not an easy task, especially if it is a classic work by man named Shakespeare. Today movies are expected to be packed with drama, action, and sex. True, Othello contains all of these, but it certainly isnt a blockbuster by todays standards. When Shakespeare wrote Othello, viewing the play was an event in itself, not an hour and a half thrill ride that todays viewer have come to expect. This was Parkers dilemmaRead MoreOthello Vs. Omkara975 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Eusteen-Em Kayle F. Barte January 20, 2014 Eng10 Michaela Atienza Omkara, Bollywood’s Othello When someone mentions Bollywood, the mind quickly thinks of a film where the plot is based on love triangles and romance which often ends happily ever after. This thought is accompanied with characters singing and dancing in authentic traditional costumes, like the sari (a costume for women), in an attempt to highlight a situation or mood more. Watching Bollywood is like watching recorded culturalRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s All The World s A Stage 1540 Words   |  7 PagesMegan Mackey Professor Raja Atallah English 1102 17 April 2017 Research Paper William Shakespeare once said, All the World’s a Stage —and now his quote can be applied to his literature within his tragedies (William Shakespeare 1). The generation of people today have a much different definition of tragedies than people did during the Shakespearean times. Shakespeare’s tragedies involve a protagonist whose character is developed so that it is clear that he is a heroic figure in the setting of theRead MoreThe Concept Of Iago By William Shakespeare1163 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Concept of Iago† William Shakespeare’s plays all have a common theme: death. There is almost always death, and the play of â€Å"Othello† is no different since it ends in a â€Å"tragedy.† It begins with a man named Iago who speaks to Roderigo of how he should have received the position of lieutenant that was instead given to Cassio, a inexperienced man in his words, by Othello, the General. Iago shows distaste towards Othello, the play then goes through the story of Iago attempting to receive the position

Is it Americas role to intervene in Iraq Essay Example For Students

Is it Americas role to intervene in Iraq? Essay As Afghan opposition groups and U.S. armed forces continue their successes in the war against the Taliban and al Qaeda, the American debate has quickly turned to the question of where the fight against terrorism should go next. In numerous public statements, President Bush has talked about a wide-ranging campaign against global terrorism. He has not committed to military operations against any other countries or terrorist organizations, but he has made it clear that the broader struggle against terrorism will be a long-lasting effort that could include the use of military force in regions beyond Afghanistan. A strong case can be made that Iraqs leader, Saddam Hussein, is so threatening to his people, his neighbors, and U.S. interests that the United States should use military force, unilaterally if necessary, to overthrow him. Proponents of such an approach, however, often underestimate the costs and risks involved. Instead of mounting a U.S. attack on Iraq as part of the current cam paign, the Bush administration should take advantage of its success in Afghanistan to pressure allies and regional players to isolate Saddams regime and to reinforce deterrence in an unambiguous way. A new Bush Doctrine should announce that Baghdads support for terrorist networks, transfer of weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups or individuals who target the United States, or the harboring of such terrorists will be considered an act of war and lead immediately to an American military intervention to overthrow the regime. Targeting IraqThere are many potential targets for a possible post-Afghanistan phase of the warAbu Sayyaf guerrilla bases in the Philippines, for example, as well as terrorist headquarters and training camps in Somalia, Syria, and Lebanon. But none is more consequential or more prominent in the current policy debate than Saddam Husseins regime in Iraq. Numerous outside analysts and (more privately) some senior Bush administration officials are already making the case that the next phase in the war on terrorism should be an effort to overthrow the Iraqi regimeif necessary, with U.S. military force. On November 26, President Bush himself appeared to raise the ante on the Iraq debate, stating that Saddam would find out what was in store for him if he failed to heed international demands to allow inspectors into Iraq to look for weapons of mass destruction programs. While Bushs statement may have been nothing more than a reiteration of existing U.S. policy, it was interpreted by many as a conscious effort to remind the world of the dangers posed by Saddam and to begin to create a legal and political predicate to justify an eventual American attack against him. Many overthrow advocates argue that the United States should remove Saddam regardless of whether Iraq was involved in the September 11 terrorist attacks or not. Absent compelling evidence of significant Iraqi involvement with the al Qaeda network or the events of September 11, the likely costs and risks of a commitment of American military forces to a regime-change campaign in Iraq would outweigh the benefits. A U.S. overthrow campaign would entail a large-scale military operation that the United States would probably have to undertake essentially alone; the increased risk of triggering terrorist attacks against American or allied targets; significant American casualties given the potential for intense urban combat and Iraqi use of chemical and biological agents; and the likely need for a long-term American military presence in Iraq to avoid regional destabilization. While these costs and risks are not so high as to rule out a possible overthrow policy under certain circumstances, they should be sobering to any advocate of sending U.S. troops to war to change the Iraqi regime. The central assumption behind this argument is that Saddamunlike the religiously motivated Taliban/al Qaeda networkis more interested in preserving his power, his regime, and his life than in carrying out acts of terror against American interests. If that assumption proves wrong and evidence emerges of Iraqi sponsorship of terrorism against the United States, the considerable costs of a U.S. intervention to overthrow Saddam would be worth payingwhether the rest of the international community was on board or not. The Challenge of Overthrowing Saddam HusseinEven short of any new Iraqi acts of aggression or terror, the removal of Saddam Hussein from power would be highly desirable, and the arguments that force should be used to remove him are not trivial. Saddam has shown great determination to produce weapons of mass destruction and has a track record of ruthless aggression against his own people and several of his neighbors, including Iran, Israel, and Kuwait. He has a proven desire for vengeanceas evidenced in the attempted assassination of forme r President George Bush in 1993 and the murder of two of his own sons-in-law after they briefly defected to Jordan in 1995. There is clear evidence that terrorists, even if not part of the al Qaeda network, have been trained in Iraq in the past. Although Saddam and al Qaeda are adversaries in many waysSaddam is a committed secularist, except where it suits him to pretend otherwise, and al Qaeda claims to be motivated by religionit is not implausible that they would join forces to attack the United States. The apparent meetings in Prague between an Iraqi intelligence official and hijacker Mohammed Atta in 2000 and 2001 suggest that at least a limited form of contact has already occurred. Even as policymakers contemplate the many potential benefits of removing Saddam from power, however, they should not overlook the likely costs, risks, and consequences of an attempt to do so. Air Power and Opposition Forces Alone Would Not Suffice. Despite the claims of many regime-change proponents, policymakers should be under no illusion that Saddam could be quickly overthrown by the application of U.S. airpower in support of a ready-made, armed opposition. While improvements in U.S. air capabilities since the Gulf Warincluding Global Positioning System (GPS)-guided bombs and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) coupled in near real-time to command centers and manned aircrafthave been significant, they would almost certainly not be enough to make possible victory by air power alone. Even GPS-guided bombs are generally not accurate enough to destroy armor, and Saddam would be sure to position much of his force (and weapons of mass destruction) in crowded cities, schoolyards, and hospitals, greatly complicating U.S. targeting options. The successful use of laser-guided bombs against stationary Iraqi tanks in the Kuwaiti desert in 1991known as tank-plinkingwould be difficult to replicate in the complex terrain and urban areas in cen tral Iraq. Iraqi opposition forces are deeply divided and have a history of infighting. Even if aggregated, the various Kurdish, Shia, and Sunni opposition forces have perhaps one-tenth the strength of Iraqi armed forces. They would be outnumbered more than two to one just by Saddams most dedicated fighters, his Special Republican Guard and Republican Guard forces, totaling about 100,000 personnel. Communication Systems EssayA Deterrable RegimeInstead of incurring these high costs and significant risks, the United States should follow a different coursea reinforced policy of deterrence articulated as a new Bush doctrine that would explicitly threaten regime change in response to Iraqi acts of terrorism or aggression. As threatening and dangerous as Saddam Hussein may be, the track record suggests that he can be dissuaded from undertaking actions that he believes would likely lead to his overthrow. During the Gulf War, Saddam refrained from using the weapons of mass destruction we now know he had, understanding (following explicit threats from U.S. Secretary of State James Baker and Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney) that to do so would almost surely lead to his downfall. He has used chemical weapons against Iran and against his Kurdish citizens, but never against a countrysuch as Israel or the United Statesthat could destroy him. He moved brigades southward towards Kuwait again in 1994, only to pull back once the Clinton administration mounted Operation Vigilant Warrior, a deployment of tens of thousands of troops. He interfered with the work of foreign weapons inspectors frequently, and ultimately expelled them, but never killed or harmed them. He brutally attacked Shia resistance forces in southern Iraq in 1991, after it became clear that the first Bush administration would not interfere to stop such operations, but generally avoided brutality against Kurds in the north on ce the United States made clear its commitment to their security. In 1996, he did direct an incursion into Kurdish parts of Iraqbut only after internecine warfare among Kurds and an explicit invitation to him to intervene by one of the Kurdish factions made it unlikely that the United States would be in a position to oppose him. Saddam has obviously also shown a proclivity for risk-taking, not least in his decision to invade Kuwait (and hold it until U.S. forces expelled him) and his attempted assassination of a former American president. But none of his aggressions, he rightly calculated, seemed likely to lead to his overthrow, with the possible exception of the assassination, had it been successful. That explains, perhaps, why Saddam appears not to have repeated the attempt. The evidence illustrates that Saddam Hussein is a ruthless and brutal dictator, but also that he is bent on self-preservation, and thus deterrable. Saddam might, of course, think he could support al Qaeda or a similar organization and not be caught doing so. But he also knows that the United States has a proven ability to track meetings between his agents and potential terrorists and that it can often trace the origins of biological agents based on their genetic content, particle size, chemical coating, or other attributes. Thus, while there is a chance his cooperation with terrorists could succeed in escaping detection, there is a better chance that the United States would be aware of his activities. Saddam would also be on notice that if his actions followed those of the Taliban, he would meet their fate. ConclusionThe United States should not now mount a large ground operation to overthrow Saddam Hussein, given the prospect that it could entail significant casualties, increase the risk of terror attacks against the United States, and require a long and costly occupation even after Saddam was gone. Anything short of a ground invasion, however, would run a high risk of failure. Despite his brutality, almost all available evidence suggests that Saddam Hussein can be deterred because he values his hold on power and his own life more than any ideological goal and more than revenge against the United States. Future acts by Saddam, or further evidence about his links with al Qaeda, could lead to a different assessment, and there should be little doubt that the American people would support a campaign to overthrow Saddam in such circumstances despite the likely casualties. At present, however, he appears to be contained every bit as well as the North Korean leadershipand much more tightly th an was the Soviet Union during the cold war. This is hardly a case for complacency, however. The United States needs to complement its containment policy by making it unmistakably clear to Saddam Hussein that renewed Iraqi aggression, support for terrorism against the United States or the transfer of weapons of mass destruction to terrorist groups would lead to a concerted U.S. campaign to overthrow his regime. While the exact threshold for when an overthrow policy would be triggered might be hard to define precisely (indeed there could be some merit in a small measure of ambiguity for the sake of deterrence), certain triggers could be made very explicit: any transfer of weapons of mass destruction to al Qaeda or similar groups; direct complicity in the September 11 attacks or any such attacks in the future; involvement in the September-October 2001 anthrax attacks; or the harboring of groups that carry out terrorism against the United States. Bush could also make clear that a range of other Iraqi actions unrelated to terrorism significant progress toward the production or acquisition of a nuclear weapon; another attempted invasion of Kuwait; an attack on Israel; or the use of force against American troopswould also be considered redlines that would produce a policy of overthrow. To back up the new strategy, the United States should continue to keep adequate military forces available for the job on potentially short notice, develop concrete plans to work with opposition groups for a strategy of overthrow, and mount a diplomatic case with key allies to win their support should an invasion become necessary. At the same time, the Bush administration should accelerate efforts to persuade Russia and some of Iraqs neighbors to move forward with a new sanctions regime that would crack down on Iraqi smuggling, focus sanctions more specifically on the Baghdad leadership and weapons of mass destruction capabilities, and make civilian goods available for easier import into Iraq. Meaningful searches for Iraqs WMD capabilities would also be desirable, but only if they would be more effective than those of the late 1990s. Americas allies and the regional powers need to understand that if Iraq cannot be contained with sanctions and stronger nonproliferation efforts, Washington may ultimately have to use force to achieve that goal. The U.S. administration should make it clear to the rest of the world that it cares a lot more about the well-being and future of the Iraqi population than does Saddam Hussein, and it should hold out a vision of American support for a future Iraq under a different regime. Reinforced deterrence, more vigilant nonproliferation efforts, and smarter sanctions will not make the Persian Gulf region risk-free or immediately free the Iraqi people from a brutal dictatorship. But they will serve the core goal of helping to prevent future terrorist actions like those of September 11 at a reasonable military and strategic cost.